000K utf8 1100 $c2020 1500 eng 2050 urn:nbn:de:gbv:8-mods-2020-00402-1 2051 10.3389/fimmu.2020.01582 3000 Daryabor, Gholamreza 3010 Atashzar, Mohamad Reza 3010 Kabelitz, Dieter 3010 Kalantar, Kurosh 3010 Meri, Seppo 4000 The Effects of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus on Organ Metabolism and the Immune System [Daryabor, Gholamreza] 4209 Metabolic abnormalities such as dyslipidemia, hyperinsulinemia, or insulin resistance and obesity play key roles in the induction and progression of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The field of immunometabolism implies a bidirectional link between the immune system and metabolism, in which inflammation plays an essential role in the promotion of metabolic abnormalities (e.g., obesity and T2DM), and metabolic factors, in turn, regulate immune cell functions. Obesity as the main inducer of a systemic low-level inflammation is a main susceptibility factor for T2DM. Obesity-related immune cell infiltration, inflammation, and increased oxidative stress promote metabolic impairments in the insulin-sensitive tissues and finally, insulin resistance, organ failure, and premature aging occur. Hyperglycemia and the subsequent inflammation are the main causes of micro- and macroangiopathies in the circulatory system. They also promote the gut microbiota dysbiosis, increased intestinal permeability, and fatty liver disease. The impaired immune system together with metabolic imbalance also increases the susceptibility of patients to several pathogenic agents such as the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Thus, the need for a proper immunization protocol among such patients is granted. The focus of the current review is to explore metabolic and immunological abnormalities affecting several organs of T2DM patients and explain the mechanisms, whereby diabetic patients become more susceptible to infectious diseases. 4950 https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2020.01582$xR$3Volltext$534 4950 https://nbn-resolving.org/urn:nbn:de:gbv:8-mods-2020-00402-1$xR$3Volltext$534 4961 https://macau.uni-kiel.de/receive/macau_mods_00000662 5051 610 5550 Betacoronavirus 5550 Coronavirus Infections 5550 Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 5550 Disease Susceptibility 5550 Dysbiosis 5550 Gastrointestinal Microbiome 5550 Humans 5550 Hyperglycemia 5550 Immune System 5550 Immunometabolism 5550 Infectious diseases 5550 Inflammation 5550 Insulin resistance 5550 Metabolic Syndrome 5550 Obesity 5550 Obesity 5550 Oxidative Stress 5550 Pandemics 5550 Pneumonia, Viral 5550 Sars-cov-2 5550 Systemic Low-Level Inflammation 5550 Type 2 diabetes mellitus